Combinations of these two amino acids result in domains that undergo rapid conformational sampling (Rauscher and Pomes, 2017), which, if perturbed toward a conformation that gravitate toward stability, will assemble into highly ordered amyloid-like fibrils that are not elastomeric (Rauscher et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2015). Overview of the computational and experimental methodologies that have recently contributed to our understanding of elastic fiber assembly. Elastagens revolutionary recombinant human tropoelastin, is identical to that present in human tissue and has many clinical applications, including effective breakthrough treatments for acne scars, stretch marks, aesthetic skin repair and wound repair. Matrix Biol. Free energy determinants of secondary structure formation: I. alpha-Helices. The hydrophobic domains contain repetitions and variations of Val-Pro-Gly-Val-Gly motifs (Figure 1), resulting in the aforementioned low complexity of sequence (Foster et al., 1973; Gray et al., 1973). Adv. (1988). J. Exp. Sequence and structure determinants for the self-aggregation of recombinant polypeptides modeled after human elastin. It was first hypothesized that tropoelastin assembles in a head-to-tail manner similar to that of other ECM proteins such as collagen, which assembles into fibrils that subsequently associate laterally to form sheets and thicker fibers (Kadler, 2017). doi: 10.1016/s0003-9861(02)00719-1, Muiznieks, L. D., Reichheld, S. E., Sitarz, E. E., Miao, M., and Keeley, F. W. (2015). doi: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)83613-x, Miao, M., Bellingham, C. M., Stahl, R. J., Sitarz, E. E., Lane, C. J., and Keeley, F. W. (2003). 31, 261272. Tropoelastins C-terminal domain 36 (yellow) does not fall into either category as it contains a distinct sequence capped with a Gly-Arg-Lys-Arg-Lys (GRKRK) motif and is primarily involved in cell interactions. Elastin is a critical skin protein consisting of crosslinked tropoelastin. Biochimie 86, 173178. doi: 10.1016/j.micron.2009.11.003, Urban, Z., Hucthagowder, V., Schrmann, N., Todorovic, V., Zilberberg, L., Choi, J., et al. (2006). Integrins canonically bind proteins containing Arg-Glu-Asp motifs, but this sequence is not found in tropoelastin (Lee et al., 2014). Matrix Biol. (2018). Cell Biol. Figure 3. Although there is no 3D structure for porcine tropoelastin, porcine tropoelastin differs from that of humans (Sandberg et al., 1977), leaving it unclear as to whether these domains align as expected in human tissue. All rights reserved. Elastagen was one of the inaugural recipients of MDF funding in 2013 and will be the first to successfully repay the funding amount. This temperature is also known as the transition temperature. Trends towards maximal association are apparent when each of these parameters is varied. Even after being able to produce recombinant tropoelastin at scales suited to characterization studies, traditional techniques have not yet produced an experimentally verified atomistic structure (Martin et al., 1995; Tarakanova and Buehler, 2013). doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2009.10.003, Tu, Y., Wise, S. G., and Weiss, A. S. (2010). Tropoelastin is the building block of elastin, a key component of the skin, arteries and lungs that gives tissue its elasticity. The bifunctional cross-links can undergo further condensation to form tetrafunctional desmosine or isodesmosine (Partridge, 1966). A. Allergan Plc, a $15.9b provider of medical aesthetics, biosimilars, and over-the-counter pharmaceutical products will acquire Elastagen Pty Ltd., a provider of advanced tissue repair platform based on tropoelastin (gives tissue its elasticity) for $95m.The acquisition adds proprietary injectable products to Allergan's existing portfolio. Specific instructions are found in the Directions for Use. Chem. Sequence variants of human tropoelastin affecting assembly, structural characteristics and functional properties of polymeric elastin in health and disease. Cytochem. Domain 36 of tropoelastin in elastic fiber formation. 286, 35943610. Biomaterials 139, 163171. Dermatol. Form. Bull. Elastagens revolutionary technology is based on recombinant human tropoelastin, the precursor of elastin which is a key component of youthful skin. N. Y. Acad. KA domains were initially thought to form -helices and poly-proline II helices (PPII) due to the presence of cross-links which require a lysine arrangement that was postulated to be achieved via -helical configuration (Brown-Augsburger et al., 1995). Tropoelastin bridge region positions the cell-interactive C terminus and contributes to elastic fiber assembly. 589(19 Pt A), 24772486. Isolation and characterization of crosslinked peptides from elastin. doi: 10.1016/j.jsb.2004.11.005, Muiznieks, L. D., Jensen, S. A., and Weiss, A. S. (2003). Elastin synthesis in arterial smooth muscle cell culture. Pathol. "We believe it's in the best strategic interest of the company to make this move, which supports Caterpillar's strategy for profitable . Allergan's Medical Aesthetics business - a comprehensive portfolio of facial aesthetics, body contouring and plastic and regenerative medicine products - is expected to grow at an 8-10 percent CAGR from 2017 to 2025. (2007). Stages in tropoelastin coalescence during synthetic elastin hydrogel formation. Interestingly, the location and orientation of different domains that contacted each other during self-assembly was noted to be heterogeneous, resulting in head-to-head, tail-to-tail, head-to-tail, and lateral interactions (Tarakanova et al., 2019a). Allergan markets a portfolio of leading brands and best-in-class products for the central nervous system, eye care, medical aesthetics and dermatology, gastroenterology, womens health, urology and anti-infectivetherapeutic categories. Chem. An electron microscopic study. (1983). The ability to stretch and recoil arises from the biochemical properties of elastins monomer, tropoelastin (discussed below). 26, 17001709. Microfibrils comprise multiple proteins, of which fibrillin-1 is the most common. J. Synthesis and properties of crosslinked recombinant pro-resilin. (2020). Elastin biomaterials in dermal repair. Tropoelastin #5052. This suggests a high level of conformational sampling during this phase of coacervation, indicating that the flexibility of tropoelastin plays a key role in assembly that may persist, to some extent, into later stages of assembly (Reichheld et al., 2020). Attempts to characterize tropoelastins structure have seen a gradual shift from the belief that tropoelastins domains have fixed structures, to understanding that the majority of its domains are capable of transitioning between random coils and transient ordered structures. (1987). doi: 10.1080/07391102.1992.10508661, Tamburro, A. M., Pepe, A., and Bochicchio, B. This suggests the ERCs primary signal pathways are involved in wound recognition through fragments of elastin, where EDPs are formed as a result of elastic tissue damage. Modeling utilizing tropoelastin derivatives has demonstrated that structural compaction into both coils and globules occurs above the transition temperature of self-assembly, which may assist in explaining the anisotropic nature of mature elastin (Baul et al., 2020). doi: 10.1016/j.jmb.2020.08.023, Luan, C. H., Harris, R., Prasad, K. U., and Urry, D. W. (1990). 82, 335340. 276, 3603536042. (2005). J. Biol. Importantly, the presence of fibrils indicates that the nanostructures formed during initial assembly contribute to the supramolecular structures that arise during both early (spherule) and later (fibril) stages of elastogenesis. Unlike other companies that use paid endorsements and questionable data, NULASTIN science is proven by 3rd party clinical evaluation. Closer to the base of the molecule, the flexible hinge region between domains 21 and 23 presented with a scissors-like bending, which is now believed to contribute to elasticity and multimeric assembly through enhanced conformational space sampling (Tarakanova et al., 2019b). Received: 17 December 2020; Accepted: 08 February 2021;Published: 25 February 2021. They are ubiquitous across most vertebrates other than lower vertebrates such as species from the superclass Agnatha (jawless fish) (Debelle and Tamburro, 1999). Acta Gen. Subj. Biol. 68, 411419. Insights into the structure and dynamics of lysyl oxidase propeptide, a flexible protein with numerous partners. Tropoelastin was revealed to be an asymmetric molecule with distinct N- and C-terminal regions that are respectively referred to as the "head" and "foot" of the molecule. Biochemistry 8, 28372845. Provides infrastructure for further development and following approval to commercialize Elastagens products, SYDNEY February 7th: Elastagen Pty Limited, a clinical stage company developing medical device products based on recombinant tropoelastin, today announced that it has entered into a definitive agreement under which Allergan, a leading global biopharmaceutical company, has agreed to acquire Elastagen for an upfront payment of US$95M plus contingent, commercial payments.. It has been postulated that the interaction between tropoelastin and cell surface proteoglycans is part of the assembly process of elastin before it is deposited on microfibrils. A., Ishibashi, H., Werneck, C. C., Keeley, F. W., Zhang, L., et al. Hailed as a giant leap forward in hair rejuvenation, NULASTIN transforms the look of eyelashes up to 120% thicker and 61% longer. It has recently been suggested that fibrillins are capable of stabilizing tropoelastin, possibly for the purpose of selecting conformations that are favorable for elastin assembly (Lockhart-Cairns et al., 2020). doi: 10.1203/00006450-199010000-00015, Nonaka, R., Sato, F., and Wachi, H. (2014). J. Hum. A., Rongish, B. J., Czirok, A., Zach, J., Little, C. D., Davis, E. C., et al. The most commonly investigated isoform contains domain 26A and lacks domain 22, and is predominantly found in elastic tissues (Indik et al., 1987; Vrhovski et al., 1997). Thus, the current computational model unifies the global and regional characteristics of tropoelastin, inferring mechanisms that complement observed experimental phenomena. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1501145, Yeo, G. C., and Weiss, A. S. (2019). The advantage of coarse-grained methodologies is that they allow for the simulation of timescales of large molecular systems on the order of microseconds, which are otherwise computationally infeasible with classical full-atomistic molecular dynamics. Exp. This process is reversible and thermodynamically controlled and does not require protein cleavage. Hogan Lovells represented Elastagen Pty Ltd. on the deal. Am. Biochemistry 36, 84138421. It's a major component of tissues in your body that require stretchiness, like your lungs, bladder, large blood vessels and some ligaments. 84, 6880. Four days after a heart attack, purified tropoelastin was injected into the heart. doi: 10.1006/jmbi.2000.3901, Baldock, C., Oberhauser, A. F., Ma, L., Lammie, D., Siegler, V., Mithieux, S. M., et al. More recently, the computational model of tropoelastin has been leveraged to characterize higher-order structures and probe self-assembly (Tarakanova et al., 2019a). Struct. The spherules grow in size and are deposited onto the microfibril scaffold where they fuse into fibrillar structures (Sherratt et al., 2001). Indeed, studies examining the consequences of domain insertions and deletions note changes in the intrinsic functionality of tropoelastin, corroborating the hypothesis that domain insertions and deletions result in altered tissue mechanics (Jensen et al., 2000; Kozel et al., 2003; Yeo et al., 2016; Miao et al., 2017). Initially, in vitro coacervation is characterized by the rapid aggregation of tropoelastin. Elastic fibers are eventually formed after extensive cross-linking through a process termed maturation (Yeo et al., 2016). (2018). Water structure and elastin-like peptide aggregation. AT acknowledges support from University of Connecticuts Institute for Collaboration on Health, Intervention, and Policy Faculty Research Seed Grant. Implications for microfibril and elastic fiber assembly. Acta Histochem. Elastagens tropoelastin is identical to that present in human tissue, and has many potential clinical applications, including treatment for acne scars, stretch marks, aesthetic skin repair and surgical wound repair. Further to this, the current model of elastin assembly does not account for how long strings or sheets of tropoelastin are capable of forming spherules on a macroscopic scale (Tu et al., 2010). 252, 351365. doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2008.02.006, Phinikaridou, A., Lacerda, S., Lavin, B., Andia, M. E., Smith, A., Saha, P., et al. Computational approaches have gained popularity in recent decades as their methodologies have been refined to provide accurate atomistic scale insights into molecular structure and movement (Tarakanova et al., 2018). 270, 1777817783. Tropoelastins primary sequence is low in complexity and contains repetitive motifs. (2001). Meanwhile, modifications to the full-atomistic model have revealed the mechanisms that contribute to aberrant fiber structure (Tarakanova et al., 2018) that have been hypothesized to predispose patients to diseases such as acquired cutis laxa (Hu et al., 2006). Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2)-mediated cross-linking of tropoelastin. 7:32. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00032, Schmelzer, C. E. H., Heinz, A., Troilo, H., Lockhart-Cairns, M. P., Jowitt, T. A., Marchand, M. F., et al. Lab. Biomacromolecules 21, 35233538. The first successful experiments to define the 3D envelope of tropoelastin utilized small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) (Baldock et al., 2011). Ann. Variations in the relative abundance of alternatively spliced ELN mRNA transcripts have been observed between tissues, and this diversity is thought to be necessary for the fine tuning of the mechanical characteristics of tissues to suit their unique functional requirements (Reichheld et al., 2019). 38, 280291. Background: Elastin is an essential component of the dermis, providing skin with elasticity and integrity. 34, 8190. Lyophilized Powder. Chem. Coacervation of recombinant human tropoelastin is strongly influenced by the concentration of protein and NaCl and to a lesser extent on pH. doi: 10.1038/246461a0, Haust, M. D., More, R. H., Bencosme, S. A., and Balis, J. U. 207, 8796. II. Mol. Elastogenesis occurs during replacement fibrosis in human heart disease and can be accelerated in vitro via tropoelastin treatment. into 200 nm then 12 m spherules, which eventually grow and stabilize into spherules 26 m in diameter (Clarke et al., 2006; Kozel et al., 2006; Tu and Weiss, 2010; Tu et al., 2010). 41, 494497. This canonical computational structure was determined to be highly similar to the envelope found via SAXS/SANS, where both consist of an extended molecular body accompanied by a protruding foot (Baldock et al., 2011). Fibulin-4 and -5, but not fibulin-2, are associated with tropoelastin deposition in elastin-producing cell culture. Coacervation optimally occurs at physiological temperature, however, in vitro coacervation can also occur at lower temperatures depending on experimental conditions and the choice of tropoelastin isoform or derivative (Yeo et al., 2011). Tropoelastin (TE) is the main (>90%) component of elastin, wherein crosslinked assembled coacervates of TE are exposed to lysyl oxidases and interact with microfibrils to expand elastin fibers. (1981). 126, 563574. Pharm. Med. Cell Biol. (2014). The self-assembly properties and nanostructure of these extra teleost isoforms are yet to be investigated. The process of tropoelastin aggregation is initially reversible, as spherules dissipate if the temperature is lowered (Clarke et al., 2006), however, maintenance of a physiological temperature results in maturation, which is indicated by spherule coalescence and the irreversible formation of fibrillar structures (Cox et al., 1974; Bressan et al., 1983; Mithieux et al., 2005). Human ELN gives rise to a broad variety of splice isoforms, with alternative splicing being observed with exons 22, 23, 24, 26A, 32, and 33 (Fazio et al., 1988; Parks et al., 1992) that result in 13 known human isoforms of the mature tropoelastin protein (Reichheld et al., 2019). Tropoelastins flexibility does not allow it to pack into a crystal lattice and its size renders it too complex to assign atomic interactions using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) on a global level (Tamburro et al., 2003, 2006; Bochicchio et al., 2004; Pepe et al., 2008). Elastagen Pty Ltd, a clinical stage company developing medical device products based on recombinant tropoelastin, today announced. The majority of tropoelastin synthesis occurs during perinatal development (Myers et al., 1983; Noguchi et al., 1990), however, synthesis may be triggered in response to tissue damage (Parks et al., 1992) or during diseases such as atherosclerosis (Phinikaridou et al., 2018). Tropoelastin aggregates at physiological temperature due to interactions between hydrophobic domains in a process called coacervation. doi: 10.1002/bip.23007, Miao, M., Stahl, R. J., Petersen, L. F., Reintsch, W. E., Davis, E. C., and Keeley, F. W. (2009). 289, 14671477. Soluble matrix protein is a potent modulator of mesenchymal stem cell performance. Biochim. Tropoelastin is a spring-like molecule that is extremely extensible prior to cross-linking. Anal. 300, 13351359. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M609505200, Dyksterhuis, L. B., Baldock, C., Lammie, D., Wess, T. J., and Weiss, A. S. (2007). doi: 10.1016/0005-2795(73)90368-1, Franzblau, C., Faris, B., and Papaioannou, R. (1969). Commun. Stages of hierarchical assembly of elastic fibers. doi: 10.1111/febs.14114, Lent, R. W., Smith, B., Salcedo, L. L., Faris, B., and Franzblau, C. (1969). Investig. Total synthesis and expression in Escherichia coli of a gene encoding human tropoelastin. Characterization of an unusual tropoelastin with truncated C-terminus in the frog. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2017.07.020, Myers, B., Dubick, M., Last, J. 1862, 324334. (1983). The elasticity of organs and tissues in vertebrates is due to the presence of elastin, and an insoluble protein whose soluble monomer, tropoelastin, is enzymatically cross-linked through -amino groups of lysine residues. After a period of collaboration with the Elastagen team, US biopharmaceutical giant Allergan acquired Elastagen in 2018 for over $350 million in total deal value. U.S.A. 115, 73387343. Biopolymers [Epub ahead of print]. Structural analysis of photocrosslinkable methacryloyl-modified protein derivatives. A., Wachi, H., Davis, E. C., and Mecham, R. P. (2003). Cellular activities are mediated through interactions between tropoelastin or EDPs and specific receptors on the cell surface. Shape of tropoelastin, the highly extensible protein that controls human tissue elasticity. The elastin receptor complex: a unique matricellular receptor with high anti-tumoral potential. Positively charged lysine residues in domains 17 were identified to interact with negatively charged HS, most likely via ionic interactions (Lee et al., 2017). Rep. 8, 116. 249, 997998. 624, 137146. doi: 10.1016/j.febslet.2015.08.029, Rodgers, U. R., and Weiss, A. S. (2004). doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.04.050, Keywords: elastin, elastic fibers, tropoelastin, computational modeling, assembly, Citation: Ozsvar J, Yang C, Cain SA, Baldock C, Tarakanova A and Weiss AS (2021) Tropoelastin and Elastin Assembly. 3, 28322844. (2019a). Biophys. (2018). Powered by Madgex Job Board Software. Of most importance, the inability to acquire large quantities of pure tropoelastin historically presented a significant obstacle to experimentally characterizing its structure. Synthesis and structural studies of a pentapeptide sequence of elastin. Cryo-electron microscopy for structural analysis of dynamic biological macromolecules. Mechanism of helix induction by trifluoroethanol: a framework for extrapolating the helix-forming properties of peptides from trifluoroethanol/water mixtures back to water. doi: 10.1002/jcp.20546, Kozel, B. 11 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Tropoelastin-Cell Receptor Interactions and Implications for Assembly, https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2021.643110, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Coacervation of tropoelastin. Tropoelastin cannot readily be prepared in quantity from natural sources and this has limited research in several important areas including structure/function relationships and fiber assembly. J. Biol. Elastin makes up the majority of elastic fibers and is formed by the hierarchical assembly of its monomer, tropoelastin. Human tropoelastin improves rat heart function postmyocardial infarction and could potentially be used to treat heart failure. doi: 10.1016/j.cis.2010.10.003, Yeo, G. C., Tarakanova, A., Baldock, C., Wise, S. G., Buehler, M. J., and Weiss, A. S. (2016). J. Mol. 10, 15321541. HS, which is present on cell surface proteoglycans (syndecans and glypicans), interacts strongly with tropoelastin (Cain et al., 2005). 396, 870873. Similarly, a mutation model associated with cutis laxa, or loose skin disease (Hu et al., 2006), was found to exhibit higher stability compared with the wild-type molecule due to the increased longevity of its salt bridges (Hu et al., 2006; Tarakanova et al., 2018). (2006). Founder, Elastagen Pty Ltd (sold to Allergan/AbbVie . The conversion of a single lysine to an allysine results in structural stabilization, which may serve as a checkpoint during self-assembly to ensure that molecules incapable of forming multiple cross-links are not incorporated into the growing chain. Biophys. . FEBS Lett. doi: 10.1006/jmbi.1995.0502, Yeo, G. C., Baldock, C., Tuukkanen, A., Roessle, M., Dyksterhuis, L. B., Wise, S. G., et al. Tropoelastin is frequently described in the literature as an unstructured protein, mainly because models of elasticity invoke an element of disorder within the structure (4, 9, 10).While this concept appears to be the case at the fine, more subtle intramolecular level, chaos alone is unlikely to explain the ordered assembly of tropoelastin which culminates in the formation of organized . J. Biol. 9:eaai7466. J. Mol. Elastin synthesis during perinatal lung development in the rat. Transl. 2:e1501145. Elastagen has received investment from an international syndicate of venture groups including AmorePacific Ventures, Brandon Capital, Cell Innovation Partners, Cicada Innovations, GBS Ventures, Korea Investment Partners and the Wellcome Trust. 69, 89102. The authors wrote and submitted this manuscript in response to an invitation by the Editor. Hydrophobic domains of human tropoelastin interact in a context-dependent manner. The ERC binds elastin derived peptides, which are the product of proteolytic activity of soluble and insoluble elastin by various elastases. doi: 10.1002/chem.200305661. Elastin-like polypeptides as models of intrinsically disordered proteins. The Weiss Lab's research focuses on the use of human tropoelastin in tissue assembly and wound repair. Comparative genomics of elastin: sequence analysis of a highly repetitive protein. Natl. However, higher resolution data were required to map out its elusive properties and performance within a hierarchical assembly (Tarakanova et al., 2018; Ozsvar et al., 2019). doi: 10.1074/jbc.M501390200, Chung, M. I., Miao, M., Stahl, R. J., Chan, E., Parkinson, J., and Keeley, F. W. (2006). Eng. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M113.533893, Reiersen, H., and Rees, A. R. (2000). doi: 10.1021/bi034837t, Tamburro, A. M., Guantieri, V., and Gordini, D. D. (1992). Tropoelastin promotes cell attachment and migration of several cell types including fibroblasts, endothelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells. Sci. The last 17 amino acid residues of the C-terminus of domain 36 are also implicated in HS interactions; the last four residues are Arg-Lys-Arg-Lys and are positively charged at physiological pH which provides a charged cluster capable of binding negatively charged HS (Broekelmann et al., 2005). Biophys. In addition, Elastagen has received significant support from Australian Federal Government grants and the NSW State Government Medical Devices Fund (MDF). For example, their inclusion in peptides derived from hydrophobic domains confers decreased times taken for self-assembly, most likely due to their favorable interaction with aqueous solvent (Miao et al., 2003). Structure of the elastin gene and alternative splicing of elastin mRNA: implications for human disease. Elastin as a random-network elastomer: a mechanical and optical analysis of single elastin fibers. IRVING, Texas (AP) IRVING, Texas (AP) Fluor Corp. (FLR) on Tuesday reported fourth-quarter net income of $9 million, after reporting a loss in the same period a year earlier. Elastin is highly hydrophobic, extensively cross-linked, and is assembled into elastic fibers in a dynamic process involving cells, cell surface receptors, and numerous elastic fiber . Allergan acquired Elastagen primarily for the injectable product portfolio (acne scars/stretch marks aesthetics). Transglutaminase-mediated cross-linking of tropoelastin to fibrillin stabilises the elastin precursor prior to elastic fibre assembly. Sci. doi: 10.1038/nrm3904, Bressan, G. M., Castellani, I., Giro, M. G., Volpin, D., Fornieri, C., and Pasquali Ronchetti, I. Biopolymers 20, 12471260. Exp. Elastic fibers provide tissues with mechanical resilience, durability, and cell interactivity, which support a diverse range of specialized functionality. Assembly proceeds from a nucleation event and undergoes elongation in a step-wise manner to form a multimer which can occur in a head-to-tail fashion (Wise et al., 2014). doi: 10.1021/acs.biomac.8b01503, Rauscher, S., Baud, S., Miao, M., Keeley, F. W., and Poms, R. (2006). Elastins subunit, tropoelastin, is a soluble 6070 kDa protein which has been intensely studied over the past three decades. A new amino acid from hydrolysates of elastin. 281, 2375723765. Tropoelastin is a unique protein with biochemical and physical properties that allow it to rapidly self-assemble into fibrous structures. Biochim. Implications for tissue specificity and durability of elastic tissue. (1973). Protein Eng. Reichheld, S. E., Muiznieks, L. D., Huynh, Q., Wang, N., Ing, C., Miao, M., et al. (2017). We are very interested in the blend of biochemistry and cell biology, as well as the tissue engineering and regenerative medicine opportunities provided by this amazing elastic protein. To get started with texting, you will need: Your phone number These ordered structures can include -helices and -structures (Vrhovski et al., 1997), which depend on the amino acid content and arrangement of domains (He et al., 2012; Reichheld et al., 2014, 2017; Muiznieks et al., 2015) and the choice of solvent (Reiersen and Rees, 2000; Muiznieks et al., 2015). Tropoelastin is a flexible molecule that retains its canonical shape. Nature 246, 461466. Adv. (2012). Most organisms contain one copy of ELN, other than teleosts and amphibians which notably possess two distinct types of ELN genes (He et al., 2007; Miao et al., 2007, 2009). (2019b). Pharmacol. Chem. 43, 131138. Thermal compaction of disordered and elastin-like polypeptides: a temperature-dependent, sequence-specific coarse-grained simulation model. U.S.A. 108, 43224327. doi: 10.1002/bip.1981.360200611. Cellular expression of tropoelastin mRNA splice variants. Elastin is the major component of elastic fibers, which are a major component of the tissue that supports the body's joints . Nature 437, 9991002. Codistribution analysis of elastin and related fibrillar proteins in early vertebrate development. The most crucial of these properties is the ability to undergo many stretch-recoil cycles whilst maintaining the structural and functional integrity of elastic tissues over an organisms lifetime. J. Biochem. A cell adhesive peptide from tropoelastin promotes sequential cell attachment and spreading via distinct receptors. A., Torres, A. R., Alvarez, V. L., and Janata, J. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.09.013. Molecular model of human tropoelastin and implications of associated mutations. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M308465200, Miao, M., Bruce, A. E., Bhanji, T., Davis, E. C., and Keeley, F. W. (2007). Tropoelastin undergoes minimal energy loss during extension, similar to other polymers such as rubber and resilin (Elvin et al., 2005; Cordier et al., 2008; Baldock et al., 2011). A novel cell adhesion region in tropoelastin mediates attachment to integrin alphaVbeta5. (2005).
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